The Aztec Empire ruled over 80,000 square miles of central Mexico for nearly a century—until a small band of Spanish conquistadors brought it down in 1521.

See the path Spanish conquistadors took to conquer the Aztecs

Spanish expeditions reached central Mexico as the Aztec Empire was expanding its influence. After securing bases in the Caribbean, they advanced west into Aztec territory, triggering a cascading conflict depicted in this interactive map and timeline.

The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan fell after a brutal 75-day siege.

See a 3D reconstruction of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital

Tenochtitlan, the Aztec Venice of Mesoamerica

Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztecs, founded around 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco, in what is today Mexico. It was a major political, economic, and religious center until its destruction by the Spanish in 1521. This video explores the marvels of the city, which began as an island but grew via causeways and in-filled land and culminating in a North American Venice.

The evolution of Mexico City, from the Aztecs to today

The sprawling modern city situated in the Valley of Mexico began a millennium ago as an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, connected to land through a series of causeways. Learn how the Aztecs built Tenochtitlan, how the Spaniards conquered it, why the lake disappeared, and more with this visually rich history and geography of a city of 9 million people.

What were the Aztecs really like?

Does the society live up to its blood-thirsty stereotype? Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma answers this question and more in this short article. Moctezuma was the principal excavator of the major Aztec archaeological site Templo Mayor in the 1970s. He shares how the culture grew from a combined emphasis on war and agriculture, and ruled one of the world's largest cities at the time.

Teotihuacán was already ancient when the Aztecs encountered it

By the time the Mexica reached Teotihuacán, the vast city had been abandoned for centuries. First settled around 400 BCE, the inhabitants developed monumental temples, canals, and a carefully planned urban grid centered on the Avenue of the Dead.

The Aztecs worshipped a vast pantheon of more than 200 gods.

France, Spain, and Britain formed a joint military alliance to force Mexico to repay its debts

In October 1861, the three powers signed the Convention of London and landed troops at Veracruz that December. Britain and Spain reached settlements with Mexico and withdrew. France refused and aimed to change the regime in power in Mexico.

The Maya were an ancient Mesoamerican civilization that built dozens of major cities across present-day Mexico and Central America.

Learn to speak the ancient Aztec language Nahuatl

Across the Aztec Empire, you'd be met with variants of Nahuatl, the indigenous language still spoken by approximately 1.5 million people today. This free, self-paced online university course teaches the Veracruz variant, beginning from the language's "piltlahcuiloltzitzin"—or alphabet—to how to conduct specific "tlamachtiliztli" or ceremonies.

See how the elite warriors of the Aztec Empire trained

This video explores the Aztec military’s elite Eagle and Jaguar warriors, known for their courage and combat skills, and highlights their rigorous training regimen. It concludes with a workout routine modeled on their methods.

The Valley of Mexico sits over 7,000 feet above sea level

Once dominated by the shallow waters of Lake Texcoco, the high-altitude Valley of Mexico—surrounded by volcanic peaks—was home to the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan. This resource breaks down the region’s unique geography and why it became a cradle of Mesoamerican civilization.

Human sacrifice reinforced Aztec political control and religious belief

The Aztecs controlled a vast territory through military might and intimidation. One very key tactic of control was the ritual of human sacrifice. While an effective scare tactic, the ritual was also grounded in deeply held beliefs that the world was sustained by blood.

Using AI to rewrite and revive Aztec tales

Despite being vanquished by the conquering Spaniards in the 16th century, the Aztecs' culture endured through their descendants and rituals, as well as texts that escaped destruction at the hands of the Europeans. These texts, known as codices and preserved in part by Christian monks, revealed intimate details of life as an Aztec in the Middle Ages. Today, AI programs allow students to learn the Aztec's language, Nahuatl, further preserving their heritage.

The Aztecs synced their solar calendar with a complex 260-day ritual cycle

Researchers have uncovered how the Aztecs aligned their agricultural solar calendar with a symbolic 260-day ritual calendar, utilizing celestial tracking and monuments. Evidence from ruins and writings explains why their new year corresponded to February 23 on the Gregorian calendar.

A bird's eye view of Teotihuacan

Dubbed Teotihuacán or City of the Gods by the Mexica, this city was first inhabited in the 2nd century CE and ultimately became an important cultural landmark for the Aztec empire. Located roughly 30 miles north of Mexico City, contemporary ruins contain a 200-foot tall Pyramid of the Sun, ancient neighborhood grids, and more. Explore the city in this virtual helicopter tour.

New research challenges the myth that Montezuma peacefully surrendered to Spain

For centuries, historians claimed Montezuma II willingly ceded control to the conquistadors, and that later Aztec resistance was a rogue uprising. Evidence now shows no peaceful handover occurred, revealing a far more turbulent and contested encounter between the two warring empires.

The Inca Empire: a timeline

When did the Inca Empire solidify into an empire? When was it invaded by the Spanish? What remains of it today? Click through this timeline to learn more.

Mexico’s political chaos weakened its defense against US invasion

Mexico’s post-independence instability—marked by coups, power struggles, and weak central control—left its northern frontier vulnerable. That political fragmentation shaped Mexico’s unpreparedness during the Mexican-American War and helped enable US conquest.

The Aztecs worshipped Mictecacihuatl, goddess of the underworld

Some elements from ancient festivals honoring Mictecacihuatl and other deities, like incense, skeleton imagery and marigolds, have been incorporated into modern Day of the Dead celebrations, possibly indicating that the holiday blends indigenous and Catholic traditions.

Chichen Itza was one of the Maya world’s most powerful cities

Chichen Itza was a major religious, cultural, and economic center on the northern Yucatán Peninsula, attaining prominence between approximately 800 and 1000 CE. It was largely abandoned by the 13th century for reasons that are still debated today.

Aztec mythology informs the Day of the Dead

The ancient people believed the dead journeyed to Mictlán, the Land of the Dead. To get there, they had to travel for four years through nine underworld levels, with the final being occupied by Mictlantecuhtli, the Aztec god of death, and his wife Mictecacíhuatl.

Play a game inspired by Aztec and Mayan mythology

This free online game, Descent of the Serpent, guides players through Mesoamerican myths as they challenge the god Tezcatlipoca. Along the way, it introduces monuments and artifacts with short explanations of their meaning in Aztec and Mayan cultures.

France invaded Mexico to install a puppet monarchy and recover debt

Napoleon III used Mexico's default on foreign loans as cover for a larger imperial ambition: overthrowing President Benito Juárez's government and installing a French-backed monarchy. The Mexican army's surprise victory at Puebla helped delay those plans by nearly a year.

See a day in the life of an Aztec midwife

This illustrated story follows Xoquauhtli, a midwife in the Aztec Empire, as she juggles childbirth duties during the festival of Teteoinnan, navigating the tension between professional responsibility and participation in the empire’s religious ceremonies, including ritual sacrifice.

What was it like to rebel against the Inca Empire?

The Inca Empire grew to its gargantuan size and became the largest empire in ancient Americas through conquest, annexation, and arranged marriage, approaches that didn't always go over well with locals. Watch this five-minute video to experience a...

How women ascended the ranks in the highstakes world of Maya politics

Two bloodlines attained near total supremacy of the Maya civilization in contemporary central America: the lords of Tikal and the Kaanul Dynasty. The Kaanul, or snake, dynasty often used marriage to expand their empire, wedding their sorcerer queens to low-ranking rulers of desired lands. Read this Archaeology Magazine article to learn more about these Maya snake queens.

See a map of the Maya civilization and its major historical sites

This interactive map showcases the full geographic extent of the Maya civilization, highlighting major archaeological sites across Mexico and Central America. Explore where Maya cities once stood—and where their ruins can still be visited today.

The Maya built their cities with advanced engineering

Maya cities featured pyramids, palaces, causeways, ball courts, and water-management systems that were engineered to support large populations—often tens of thousands—without the use of metal tools, draft animals, or wheeled transport.

The US won every major battle of the Mexican-American War

Despite being outnumbered in key engagements, US forces defeated Mexican armies across every major front. Superior training, leadership, and logistics allowed the US to win decisively—capturing Mexico City without losing a single major battle.

The Mexican-American War led to the birth of the Associated Press

To cover the distant war efficiently, rival New York newspapers pooled resources to share reports from the front—forming what became the Associated Press. The war marked a turning point in how Americans received real-time news about foreign conflicts.

How the US took half of Mexico

In just two years, the United States redrew the map of North America. Sparked by border disputes in Texas and fueled by President James Polk’s drive for expansion, the Mexican–American War (1846–1848) reshaped both nations.

Ancient Egypt began as a collection of independent city-states along the Nile

Those cities were gradually organized into Upper and Lower Egypt, names derived from the northern flow of the river. The region was unified for the first time in 3,100 BCE under King Menes (also known as Narmer).

American annexation of Texas eventually sparked war with Mexico

After Texas won independence from Mexico in 1836, the US annexed it in 1845—despite Mexico’s refusal to recognize Texas as separate. That annexation, combined with a heated border dispute, triggered the Mexican-American War the following year.

The US Army inherited the Apache Wars after the Mexican-American War

The resolution of the Mexican-American War inserted the US Army into an ongoing conflict between Apache groups and outside powers—transforming local resistance into a decades-long struggle against American expansion known as the Apache Wars.

Manifest destiny fueled US aggression against Mexico

The belief that the United States had a divine right to expand westward—known as manifest destiny—justified President Polk’s push for territorial conquest. It shaped public support for the Mexican-American War and framed the invasion as national destiny.

How the great city of Cusco came to be, according to the Inca

The chronicler Inka Garcilaso de la Vega recorded the origin story of the Inka (also spelled Inca) and the founding of Cusco, the capital of the society's great empire. Listen to the Inca origin story in this 4-minute video narrated by a child.