Penicillin, Opera, and Going Long On Beanie Babies

What is penicillin?

Penicillin was the first natural antibiotic used to kill or inhibit bacteria in humans, rendering once-fatal infections treatable. Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered the substance by accident in 1928, though it wouldn’t become clinically available until 1941.

It took researchers around a decade to develop methods to purify and mass-produce penicillin in the early 1940s. After the US entered World War II, the antibiotic was being manufactured on an industrial scale—cutting Allied battlefield death rates from bacterial pneumonia from about 18% in World War I to less than 1% in World War II.

Penicillin works by blocking the building of cell walls in bacteria, leaving the microbes unable to hold themselves together. The bacteria then burst and die, while human cells remain unharmed because they don’t have cell walls. 
 

Experts agree that penicillin is one of history's most important medical discoveries. The “wonder drug” spawned a new class of antibiotic treatments and has saved an estimated 500 million lives worldwide since its production. 

... Read our full deep dive on the antibiotic here.

Also, check out ... 

> The same mold behind penicillin is key to blue cheese and flavorful ham. (More)

> How the "penicillin girls" helped make the antibiotic possible. (More)

> It took 14 years for penicillin to become widely available. (More)

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A brief look at recessions

Stemming from the Latin word “recessus” (meaning “a retreat”), recessions are sustained periods of declining activity in a country’s economy. During a recession, unemployment rises while economic output falls across a large swath of industries. Recessions are inevitable in modern economies, with one occurring about every six to seven years.
 

One common definition of a recession is when a country logs two consecutive quarters of shrinking gross domestic product, but in practice, these economic phenomena are more complex.
 

The US has been through 34 recessions since 1854, according to the National Bureau of Economic Research. But over time, they’ve become both shorter and less frequent. Since 1980, the US has only experienced six recessions.

... Read our full deep dive on recessions here.

Also, check out ... 

> Amid market downturns, some let their roots grow out—so-called "recession blondes." (More)

> The eight people who decide whether the US is in a recession. (More)

> Visualizing the trends of recessions and recoveries over 150 years. (More)

Opera, explained

Opera (derived from the Italian word for “artistic work”) is an art form that shares narratives through singing and music. The style was born in 16th-century Florence at the end of the Italian Renaissance. In the 1600s, it spread to other parts of Europe and took different shapes and styles for centuries (listen to operatic singing).

Operas and musicals are often incorrectly conflated. Operas emphasize music, rather than lyrics and dialogue, to serve the storytelling. The message transcends language in opera, exemplified by how operas are often performed in languages foreign to their audiences.

While cost barriers and a changing cultural landscape have mostly sidelined opera today, it remains culturally relevant in modern television, movies, and sports coverage that continue to use its iconic melodies.

... Read our full deep dive on opera here.

Also, check out ... 

> Why Mozart's "The Marriage of Figaro" was so controversial. (More)

> Everything you need to know about opera etiquette. (More)

> Understanding the economic hardships opera faces. (More)

Best of the Week

We added 167 learnings this week to our knowledge collective—here are some of our favorites.

How millennial tastes and basic ROI are shrinking roller coasters. 

Disney World is mosquito-less, thanks to civil engineer Joe Potter.

How China makes sand—crucial for construction—by crushing rocks.

Long barred from playing, women would eventually make bowling popular.

Gas station sushi, experts say, is actually pretty safe to eat.

Earth is the only planet in our solar system with fire.

Seventeen of history's most peculiar heists. 

See rate of burnout among major occupations. 

"Jaws" creators generally regret how the work stigmatized sharks.

Ian Falconer's pig character "Olivia" was based on his niece.

What does the Rosetta Stone actually say?

The stories of the voice actors behind hit kids' show "Bluey."

The "butterfly effect" is the informal name for chaos theory. 

Why firms that manage wealthy families' money have boomed since 2010.

The one-time fad of investing long-term in Beanie Babies. 

In partnership with Noom

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More from 1440

Historybook: Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin's potential as global antibiotic (1928); Ted Williams is last Major League Baseball player to end season batting over .400 (1941); Jazz legend Miles Davis dies (1991); American tennis great and color barrier breaker Althea Gibson dies (2003); Rapper Coolio dies (2022).