Good morning. It's Tuesday, Feb. 17, and welcome to this week's Science & Technology newsletter. First time reading? Sign up here or click here to share with friends. |
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This past Saturday was Valentine's Day, which brought to mind flowers, hearts, and (for cybersecurity experts) the Love Bug, a piece of malware that caused billions of dollars in damage back in 2000. While not the most romantic of gifts, it did inspire us to learn about the history and science of computer viruses. We'll also dig into the world of geothermal power before exploring some of the most powerful astronomical phenomena: black holes.
Let us know what you think! Whether it's feedback on our email format, a comment on this week's topics, suggestions for future coverage, or something else, we're happy to hear from readers. You can get in touch by simply replying to this email.
—Marco Daniel Machado, 1440 Science & Technology Section Editor |
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Computer viruses, explained
A computer virus is a type of code that copies itself into other software when a user runs an infected program or file. This action causes damage by altering programs, corrupting files, and compromising digital security (learn more). The term was first used in 1984 to describe all types of self-duplicating software and has since been misused as a catchall for a broad range of malicious software, including adware and spyware (malware types, explained). However, computer viruses are distinct from other malware because they require human action to spread.
The idea of self-replicating software originated with John von Neumann, a mathematician and computer scientist who worked on the Manhattan Project. The first computer virus to spread beyond a research lab, Elk Cloner, was written by 15-year-old Richard Skrenta and spread through floppy disk sharing (learn more). Subsequent viruses also propagated via physical media, but the widespread adoption of the internet led to infections occurring more commonly through the downloading of software, such as compromised email attachments (explore examples).
Software developed to detect and remove early computer viruses became the precursors to modern antivirus software—a misnomer for tools used to protect against all forms of malware (learn how to avoid them). Computer viruses have become increasingly rare due to these tools, more secure computing architecture (e.g., web-based programs that don't need to be downloaded), and the shift by cybercriminals toward more lucrative methods, such as ransomware.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on computer viruses here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> The Melissa "virus" helped associate explicit websites with malware. (Watch)
> Some viruses can transform or hide inside Microsoft Office files. (View)
> The history of malware and how AI will impact its future. (Watch)
> Take a guided tour through the Museum of Malware Art. (Watch) |
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Harnessing Earth's Energy |
Geothermal power, 101
Geothermal power is a renewable energy source that converts the thermal energy trapped beneath Earth's surface into electricity. Steam created from this energy can be funneled into a turbine, which, when spun, produces electricity in an attached generator (watch explainer). The US generated more geothermal power than any other country in 2024, and advances in drilling technology are anticipated to greatly expand its use over the coming decades.
Earth's internal thermal energy comes from three sources: leftovers from collisions of material during the planet's formation, the decay of radioactive elements, and friction as dense material sinks toward the planet's core (learn more). This energy heats underground water reservoirs, which escape to the surface through steam vents, geysers, and hot springs (watch example). Harnessing the latter for heating systems represents the earliest example of human use of geothermal energy.
The first geothermal power plants were built near natural vents, but subsequent plants have been built near geologically active regions, where wells can be drilled to access water near the surface (see visualization). Although wells and, by extension, the geothermal plants that use them cost millions of dollars and carry seismic activity risks, they create a system that can run 24 hours a day by reinjecting most of the extracted water back into the Earth.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on geothermal power here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> Rare earth elements can be extracted from geothermal brines. (Read)
> Japan is home to the world's only geothermal steam dye workshop. (View)
> Why hasn't geothermal power taken off? (Listen)
> See where geothermal plants are being built worldwide. (Explore) |
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What are black holes?
Black holes are locations where spacetime is bent so severely that nothing can escape. They form when massive stars can no longer support themselves with the energy released in nuclear reactions. The resulting runaway collapse compresses the star's core into a region of enormous gravitational pull while ejecting most surrounding material in a massive supernova (watch explainer). This explosion produces elements that comprise up to 73% of the human body's mass (learn more).
The existence of black holes was predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein's theory of gravity—general relativity—which described the universe as having an underlying fabric that curves in the presence of mass and energy. With enough of either, the warping can become so extreme that anything traveling within a certain distance of the region, including light, becomes trapped. This boundary of no return is the event horizon (see diagram). With no light able to leave this region via emission or reflection, everything within it appears black.
Scientists estimate that there are 40 quintillion black holes in the universe, which are categorized into three types—supermassive, intermediate, and star-sized—based on their mass, though more may exist (watch explainer). Although not directly observable, their presence can be inferred based on their gravitational influence on nearby objects. Black holes serve as natural laboratories for testing various models in theoretical physics and are theorized to play a significant role in galactic formation and evolution (learn more).
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on black holes here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> Black hole physics suggests the universe may be a hologram. (Watch)
> Time appears to stop at the edge of black holes. (Read)
> Why black holes don't really suck in everything around them. (Read)
> Can particle accelerators ever create black holes? (Read) |
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Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.
> The largest and only US particle collider shuts down after running since 2000
Science Friday | Flora Lichtman and Charles Bergquist. At New York’s Brookhaven National Laboratory, the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider was the world's second most powerful particle accelerator. It was used to study subatomic particles and recreate the conditions just after the Big Bang by colliding gold atomic nuclei. (Listen) | Learn about the Big Bang by exploring our write-up and findings here.
> Memory and storage shortages and costs delay the Steam Machine
PCMag | Michael Kan. Valve Corp. announced the need to revisit shipping schedules and delay pricing announcements for its gaming console, VR headset, and controller, citing stretched manufacturing capacity for memory chips, which is expected to persist through 2028 as new AI data centers continue to be built. (Read) | Learn about microchips by exploring our write-up and findings here.
> Developing the first comprehensive map of rare mantle earthquakes
Stanford Report | TK. Rather than the more common earthquakes in the crust, researchers identified 459 quakes in the layer between Earth's crust and its molten core, mainly in the Himalayas and Bering Strait. The map will help scientists better understand mantle behavior, which partially drives tectonic plate movement. (Read) | Learn about earthquakes by exploring our write-up and findings here.
> What you need to know about Moltbook
Mashable | Catharina Doria and Teodosia Dobriyanova. The social media platform built exclusively for AI agents offers a glimpse into how AI systems interact at scale. However, thousands of humans infiltrating the site posing as agents may be fueling some of the cybersecurity and sentient AI concerns making headlines. (Watch) | Learn about LLMs, the "brains" behind AI agents, by exploring our write-up and findings here.
> Computer Viruses: What malware caused the most damage in history? (View) |
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In 2019, a laptop loaded with six of the worst malware in history sold for $1.3M. |
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