The law that changed women's sports

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Good morning. It's Saturday, July 19, and we're bringing you the latest Society & Culture newsletter. Every week, we provide fascinating deep dives into the worlds of art, music, literature, film, food, sports, entertainment, and more.

Tonight is the WNBA All-Star Game, so we've gone deep on Title IX, a law that many WNBA players credit with paving the way for their careers. Below, we detail the law's history, its impact, and where it stands today.

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—Kevin Kearney, 1440 Society & Culture Section Editor

On the Basis of Sex

Background

Title IX of the Education Amendments Act, signed into law by former President Richard Nixon on June 23, 1972, prohibits sex-based discrimination in federally funded education programs, covering 17,000 institutions and 50 million students.

Although the law does not only apply to athletics, its application significantly impacted college women’s sports programs and, in turn, changed the landscape for American women’s sports more broadly. (Read the full text of the law.)

Inspired by Experience

The law began as a class-action lawsuit filed by Bernice Sandler, a part-time college instructor who believed the hiring process for full-time teachers was discriminatory. After Sandler testified to a congressional subcommittee, members of Congress drafted a bill that would later become Title IX.

One of the bill’s biggest champions and its major author was Rep. Patsy T. Mink (D-HI), the first woman of color in Congress and someone who openly spoke about her own experiences with gender discrimination.

While Title IX wasn’t written exclusively for sports, the law necessitated correcting the disparities between men’s and women’s athletic programs. Before Title IX was passed, fewer than 300,000 high school girls played sports compared with 3.7 million boys. College scholarships were scarce, and women were relegated to outdated facilities.

How It Works

Schools compliant with Title IX must meet at least one part of a three-part test. The Office for Civil Rights oversees Title IX complaints and investigates 1,500 cases annually, intending to address the inequities within 60 days.

Schools found to be out of compliance can lose federal funding, though that penalty has yet to be enforced. Fines are rare but not unheard of: Michigan State paid $4.5M in 2019 for Larry Nassar-related violations, and students have sued for damages when schools have been found liable for “deliberate indifference” to sexual harassment.

The Law's Long-Tailed Legacy

In the decades since Title IX’s passage, there’s been a significant rise in girls’ and women’s athletics. By 2020, the number of women in NCAA sports increased seven times the pre-Title IX rate. Between 1972 and 2019, the number of girls participating in high school sports increased by over 1,000%. The growth has unlocked a $1B women’s sports industry worldwide and more Olympic medals for the US.

The impact isn’t just on the field. Title IX boosted women’s undergraduate enrollment, which now outnumbers men. Gains can also be found after graduation: A 2015 report showed 94% of women in C-suite positions played sports, crediting athletics for resilience and teamwork skills.

An Ongoing Application

Title IX has not been a cure-all. In 2023, women’s teams at Division I schools received just 26% of recruiting dollars and 44% of athletic scholarships despite making up 44% of student-athletes. Women’s basketball coaches earned 63% of their male counterparts' pay in 2024.

Though the law is over 50 years old, its directives are still being debated. In early 2025, President Donald Trump signed an executive order banning transgender women from college athletics, citing Title IX compliance. A week later, the Department of Education said Title IX does not require equitable distribution of name, image, and likeness payments to athletes, which critics say might endanger some women's programs.

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Explore Title IX

WNBA legend Sue Bird on why Title IX matters

Few athletes are more decorated than Sue Bird, who’s won two NCAA championships, four WNBA titles, and five Olympic gold medals. In this interview, she explains how Title IX allowed her a successful career and why she believes the WNBA’s success is continuing to do the work that Title IX began. Watch it here.

Billie Jean King on playing tennis before Title IX

Before Title IX, tennis legend Billie Jean King not only had to deal with limited resources; she also had to deal with isolating experiences, like being excluded from team photos at Long Beach State and being told to “get lost” by male teammates. In this Atlantic interview, she recounts her challenging path. Read it here.

Title IX helped push women’s soccer to the world stage

In 1999, Title IX era stars Mia Hamm and Brandi Chastain helped the US win the World Cup, drawing a then-record 18 million viewers and helping popularize US women’s soccer. This New American article details the NCAA’s role as a talent incubator, attracting over 20,000 international athletes annually. Read it here.

Top 40 athletes of the Title IX era

Published to mark the 40th anniversary of Title IX's passage, this list ranks the top 40 athletes whose careers were significantly shaped by the 1972 law. It highlights pioneers who broke barriers and excelled post-Title IX, emphasizing their athletic achievements and cultural influence. Check it out here.

The University of Chicago's scholarship that was 'for girls only'

There were athletic scholarships for women before Title IX, but the Gertrude Dudley Scholarship might’ve been the first to advertise itself as such. This article catches up with the two women who were awarded the scholarship and what their lives were like once they finally arrived at school. Read it here.

The ‘70s argument against Title IX

Some worried Title IX would unfairly punish revenue-generating sports, which Senator John Tower (R-TX) proposed exempting from the law. His amendment failed, but the push for a similar modification continued through the decades, evident through this 1978 New York Times opinion piece. Read it here.

Cultural Context

Beyond our weekly deep dives, we love finding great takes on the culture currently shaping our lives. Here are some of the best reactions, profiles, and think pieces we encountered this week.

> Yes, College Students Can't Read Good

Persuasion | Elan Kluger. There’s been a rash of essays lately about the dismal literacy of the younger generations, with college professors in particular expressing dismay at their students' inabilities. Kluger, a Dartmouth student, agrees things are bad, but notes that the present isn't all that different from the past. (Read)

> Joel Embiid Sees You

ESPN | Dotun Akintoye. The 76ers player is one of the NBA’s best, though he’s prone to injury and unflattering PR. This longform profile goes beyond the controversies, probing the star to shed his trollish persona and explain his sometimes off-putting behavior. (Read)

> James Gunn's 'Superman' Movie Is Corny. Which Is Why It Gets Superman Right.

NPR | Glen Weldon. The latest addition to the “Superman” universe had a big opening weekend and quickly became one of the year’s biggest blockbusters. Weldon thinks that’s because it embraces the comic book's roots rather than turning the protagonist into a moody antihero. (Read)

> How TikTok Is Transforming the English Language

Literary Hub | Adam Aleksic. The author, a linguist, saw the rise of video-based social media as a middle schooler. In this insightful excerpt from his forthcoming book, he lays out how internet slang enters the real world—and how that process isn’t so different from English’s earliest days. (Read)

> New York Is a Red Sauce Town. So Why Are These Restaurants Quietly Disappearing?

Eater | Joshua David Stein. Reliable Italian restaurants are being priced out of New York, a place famous for reliable Italian restaurants. Stein walks readers through their dining rooms and kitchens, offering an ode to a fading standby and a preview of what comes next. (Read)

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