Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, drawing the new Islamic Republic into a devastating eight-year war

Just a year after the revolution, Saddam Hussein invaded Iran, hoping to exploit its post-revolutionary instability. The brutal conflict killed hundreds of thousands in one of the century's deadliest conflicts and forced Khomeini's government to consolidate power.

The 1979 Iranian Revolution inspired other Islamist movements and alarmed Sunni governments

By establishing the world's first modern Islamic theocracy, the revolution inspired Islamist movements across the region and alarmed Sunni Arab governments. The resulting rivalry between Shia Iran and Sunni Saudi Arabia has since fueled proxy conflicts in Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen that persist today.

'Velayat-e faqih' is the religious doctrine that has governed Iran since the 1979 revolution

Meaning "guardianship of the Islamic jurist," the doctrine transfers all political and religious authority to the Shia clergy, with the supreme leader holding ultimate power over the state. Developed by Khomeini in the 1970s, it has served as the foundation of Iran's government since the revolution.

Ayatollah Khamenei ruled Iran for 36 years after succeeding Khomeini as Supreme Leader

When Khomeini died in 1989, Ali Khamenei was appointed acting supreme leader on the same day. He served in this position until his death in February 2026, shaping Iran for nearly four decades.

Iranians voted overwhelmingly to establish an Islamic Republic in March 1979

Just weeks after Khomeini's return, Iran held a national referendum to replace the monarchy with an Islamic Republic, and over 98% voted in favor (though the vote was criticized). The vote formalized the revolution's outcome, laying the foundation for a theocratic government that remains in place today.

A report found that the 2026 Iran war is the largest oil supply disruption in history.

See how the rivalry between Iran and Israel has remade the Middle East

This 2025 documentary explores how the relationship between Iran, Israel, and the United States has shaped Middle Eastern geopolitics for decades. The film covers events leading up to and following the 2025 12-day war involving these nations.

The UN found that the Islamic Republic of Iran used genocidal tactics after the revolution

A 2024 report classified Iran's mass executions of political prisoners in the 1980s as genocide and crimes against humanity, finding that thousands were arbitrarily killed under Khomeini's orders by "death committees" targeting perceived religious and political enemies.

Iran's 1979 revolution sparked a second oil shock—and reconfigured global energy markets.

The Iranian Revolution relied largely on nonviolent tactics

Despite thousands of unarmed protesters killed by the Shah's forces, the revolution relied overwhelmingly on nonviolent tactics, including strikes, demonstrations, and civil disobedience, with up to 9 million Iranians peacefully taking to the streets, making it one of history's largest protest movements by population percentage.

Iran became a constitutional monarchy in 1906

A popular revolution forced the ruling Qajar Shah—a dynasty that had governed Iran since the late 18th century—to sign a constitution and establish a parliament, marking Iran's first major step toward democratic governance and limiting the monarchy's absolute power.

See a timeline of the events that shaped the Iranian Revolution

From a defamatory newspaper editorial that sparked protests in January 1978 to Khomeini's return from exile and the Shah's flight from Iran in 1979, this timeline traces the rapidly escalating chain of events—protests, crackdowns, and political collapses—that toppled one of the Middle East's most powerful monarchies.

Hear how the US and Iran went from close allies to bitter adversaries after the 1979 revolution.

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi ruled Iran for nearly four decades before being ousted by the revolution

The last Shah of Iran came to power in 1941 and pursued rapid Westernization through his controversial reforms. His authoritarian rule, backed by the US, and his feared secret police, SAVAK, fueled mass resentment that ultimately drove him from power in 1979.

Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran on Feb. 1, 1979, after 14 years in exile

Greeted by millions of Iranians flooding the streets of Tehran, Khomeini's return was a defining moment of the revolution. Within days, he appointed a rival prime minister, effectively dismantling the last remnants of the Shah's government and consolidating clerical rule over the new Islamic Republic.

Persia was officially called Iran by the international community in 1935

At the request of Reza Shah, the international community began using "Iran"—the name Iranians had always called their country—replacing the Western term "Persia." The change reflected a broader push for national identity and modernization under the Pahlavi dynasty.

Ayatollah Khomeini led the ideological opposition to the Shah from exile

Exiled in 1964 for opposing a law that granted diplomatic immunity to US military personnel in Iran, Khomeini built a large following by smuggling recorded sermons into Iran on cassette tapes. He aimed to replace the monarchy with an Islamic republic governed by religious law.

Mosaddegh nationalized Iran's oil industry in 1951, threatening Western control of the country's resources

Before nationalization, British companies controlled most of Iran's oil wealth, with little revenue returned to Iranians. Mosaddegh's decision made him a national hero at home but triggered a Western-led embargo and ultimately contributed to the coup that removed him from power.

Why have gas prices surged nearly 27% since the Iran war began?

Oil passing through the Strait of Hormuz makes up only about 7% of US crude imports. However, crude oil prices account for 51% of the cost of a gallon of gas in the US. US refiners pay the Brent crude futures price, even for domestic drilling.

Mohammad Mosaddegh was ousted in a CIA-backed coup in 1953

Iran's democratically elected prime minister, Mosaddegh, nationalized the country's oil industry in 1951, challenging British and American control of Iran's resources. The CIA and British intelligence orchestrated a coup that ousted him and reinstated the Shah, fueling decades of Iranian distrust of the West.

The primary language in Iran is Persian, also called Farsi

Spoken by the majority of Iran's 90 million people, Persian is one of the world's oldest continuously spoken languages, with a literary tradition stretching back over a thousand years. It is also widely spoken in Afghanistan and Tajikistan.

Oil nationalization triggered the CIA‑backed 1953 coup in Iran

NPR's Four Days in August podcast recounts the four days of covert CIA‑UK operations in Iran that toppled Prime Minister Mossadegh in August 1953. Threats of Iranian oil nationalization were a major driver of the decision to facilitate regime change.

The Sunni-Shia divide has fueled conflict and rivalry throughout the Middle East for centuries

Islam's ancient sectarian split, rooted in a seventh-century dispute over succession following the Prophet Mohammed's death, has shaped modern geopolitics—most visibly in the proxy rivalry between Sunni Saudi Arabia and Shia Iran, whose competition for regional dominance has inflamed conflicts across Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Yemen.

Iran-Iraq war drained over $1T from the combined economies of Iran and Iraq

Across eight years (1980-88), Iran and Iraq each lost about $500 B in GDP, infrastructure destruction, military expenses, disrupted oil exports, and mounting debt—totaling over $1 T in economic damage.

The Middle East's cold war, explained

The Middle East is one of the most complex regions in the world, including a complicated web of conflicts and actors. Two countries, Saudi Arabia and Iran, have torn apart the region by supporting opposing sides in other countries and indirectly...

Air pollution in war-torn Iran unleashes invisible toxic threats

Burning oil depots and bombed buildings are endangering the health of millions of people during the 2026 attacks. Heavy metals from munitions and other damaged materials are going airborne, but the exact health implications depends on dose, wind currents, and other factors including preexisting health conditions.

The rise of ISIS, explained in 6 minutes

The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) is incredibly powerful, and has seemingly done the impossible. The group has seized vast areas of the Middle East to form a mini-state it calls a reincarnation of the ancient Caliphate. Since forming, ISIS has waged war with all of its neighbors and has launched deadly terror attacks all over the world. This six-minute video, by Vox, outlines the history and rise of ISIS.

Beyond oil, the Iran war is pushing up costs on fertilizer, prescriptions, and mortgages, too

Gas is up 27% since fighting began, but the Strait of Hormuz also carries a third of the world's fertilizer, petrochemicals used in generic drugs, and helium for semiconductor manufacturing. Mortgage rates have climbed back above 6.4%, and economists warn $130 oil could tip the U.S. into recession.

Is there an arms race in the Middle East?

In 2021, countries in the Middle East spent $168 billion on weapons. Defense spending in the Middle East has been falling in the last few years, but this doesn’t necessarily mean that the region is de-militarizing. In 2021, Saudi Arabia spent $55...

The Shah fled Iran in January 1979, ending nearly 38 years of Pahlavi rule

On Jan. 16, 1979, Mohammad Reza Shah left Iran with his wife, officially for a "vacation"—one he would never return from. His departure marked the effective collapse of the monarchy, as millions celebrated in the streets and power swiftly shifted to Khomeini's revolutionary movement.

The National Guard serves both state governors and presidents

Roughly 430,000 trained military personnel act as a strategic reserve for the US military, deployed domestically during natural disasters or unrest as well as overseas. It consists of the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard, overseen at the federal level by the National Guard Bureau.

The 2007 animated film 'Persepolis' captures the Iranian Revolution through a child's eyes

The critically acclaimed film, based on Marjane Satrapi's graphic memoir, traces Iran's transformation from the Shah's rule through the revolution and its turbulent aftermath, showing how seismic political change shapes ordinary lives.

OPEC (the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has grown from five to 12 members since 1960.

A survey of armed conflict in the Middle East

The decade following the Arab Spring has been one of bloodshed and violence in the Middle East. In 2011, protests in Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya led to infighting and political fragmentation. Civil wars, foreign interventions, and the rise of...

An overview of North Korea’s military capabilities

With one of the world’s largest conventional military forces, North Korea is often perceived as a security threat. This multimedia backgrounder by CFR breaks down North Korea’s military capabilities. North Korea has the world’s...

In 1979, Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran, holding 52 Americans hostage for 444 days

Outraged by the US decision to allow the exiled Shah to enter the United States for medical treatment, student protesters stormed the embassy in November 1979. The crisis paralyzed the Carter presidency and ended with a negotiated release on the day of Ronald Reagan's inauguration.

The power and influence of the American presidency have expanded significantly over time—far beyond what the founders envisioned.

Israel’s swift victory in the Six-Day War redrew the map of the Middle East

Learn more about the June 1967 conflict which shifted territorial lines across Israel and its neighbors—Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq—reshaping the Middle East’s political landscape with long-lasting geopolitical ramifications.

Mapping the Middle East showing Sunni and Shia populations by country

France24's interactive visualization shows where each branch of Islam predominates across the region, from Iran's Shia majority to Saudi Arabia's Sunni dominance. The map helps make Middle Eastern politics (and conflicts) more legible.