Ukraine came under Russian imperial rule in the late 18th century

Ukrainian nationalism rose under imperial repression

In the 19th century, Ukrainian nationalism took shape through cultural revival movements and intellectual circles—even as the Russian Empire banned the Ukrainian language and sought to suppress Ukrainian identity.

Ukraine's Soviet Republic was tightly bound to Moscow's control

Proclaimed in 1917 and absorbed into the USSR in 1922, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was nominally independent yet operated under Moscow's control, with its government and laws directed by the Soviet Communist Party.

The origins of Ukrainian identity are a matter of historical debate

Scholars disagree on when a distinct Ukrainian identity emerged. Some trace it to Kyivan Rus, a medieval East Slavic state centered in Kyiv, while others argue that Ukrainian nationhood developed much later, shaped by centuries of foreign rule and cultural revival movements.

Prehistoric to present day Ukraine

Recognizing the abundance of information available on the current war between Ukraine and Russia, this video focuses on the history of the region. Encapsulating Ukraine's background, the viewer will gain a better grasp of how the modern state arose from a quilt of different ethnicities, noteworthy conflicts between various groups, and more.

Kyivan Rus laid the cultural foundations for Eastern Europe

From the 9th to the 13th centuries, Kyivan Rus was a powerful East Slavic state centered in Kyiv. It shaped the region's language, religion, and political traditions—forming the shared cultural roots of modern-day Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus.

Ukraine became independent after the Soviet Union's collapse

Ukraine declared independence on Aug. 24, 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In a national referendum, over 90% of Ukrainians approved independence, establishing a democratic constitution and marking the birth of a modern sovereign state.

Russia controls about 20% of Ukraine's territory

As of February 2026, Russian forces occupy roughly one-fifth of Ukraine, including Crimea and large parts of the Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia, and Kherson regions, with front lines largely unchanged for months.

Russian forces seized Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula in 2014

Days after Ukraine's 2014 revolution, unmarked Russian troops occupied key sites in Crimea, a Black Sea peninsula with a predominantly Russian-speaking population that had been part of Ukraine since 1954.

Modern Ukraine—caught between Europe and Russia

"Ukraine" has been translated by some scholars as meaning "borderlands". Indeed the country lies perfectly between Europe and Russia, while hosting a diverse collection of people of differing languages, cultures, and ethnicities, feeling affinity for those on the other sides of the country's borders. This article explores how this affects the actions and reactions of Ukrainians during the current conflict.

Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine began on Feb. 24, 2022

Russia launched a massive multifront assault from Belarus, Russia, and Crimea, aiming to seize Kyiv within days. Instead, Ukrainian forces repelled the advance, halting Moscow's plans for a rapid takeover.

Mapping Russia's historical borders

This interactive map illustrates how the country’s borders have changed over the centuries, dating all the way back to the year 862, when the Varangian king Rurik assumed leadership of Ancient Rus. Scroll down to see how Russia vastly expanded its territory in the 16th and 17th centuries, and skip to 1991 to see which countries gained independence after the fall of the USSR.

The day Russia invaded Ukraine—an oral history

Experience the slow build-up to the Russian-Ukraine war, to the moment when it was clear Putin intended to invade, to the actual invasion and occupation in this oral history compiled by Politico. Multiple US and Western officials share their perspectives and thoughts on the war, how it's been conducted, and what can happen next.

The origins of Putin's 'Nazism' claim in Ukraine

Ukraine has had a varied history, and is home to a rich diversity of ethnicities, religions, and people. In the time leading up to Russia's attacks on the country, Russian President Vladimir Putin referred to Ukraine as a "Nazi nation", owing to Ukrainian nationalists' acceptance of the invading Nazis as liberators from the Soviet Union in WWII. The history is more complex than that. Read this Smithsonian Magazine article to learn more.

The Romanov family ruled Russia for more than 300 years

From 1613 to 1917, 18 Romanovs—including Peter and Catherine the Great—governed the vast Russian Empire. Their dynasty ended abruptly in 1917 when Nicholas II abdicated amid wartime shortages and revolutionary unrest, marking the end of imperial Russia.

Ukraine's pro-Russian President halted an EU deal in 2013, leading to a mass protest movement

In late 2013, President Viktor Yanukovych suspended preparations for a long-negotiated EU association agreement under Russian pressure, signaling a return to Moscow's influence and sparking mass Euromaidan protests across Ukraine.

Language and region are fault lines in Ukraine's conflict

Ukraine's east and south—largely Russian-speaking—differ from the Ukrainian-speaking west and center. These geographic, linguistic, and cultural divides have become fault lines exploited by political and military conflict since 2014.

Putin claimed the invasion of Ukraine was to demilitarize and 'denazify' the country

In a 5,000-word historical treatise he wrote himself, President Vladimir Putin claimed the move was meant to restore Russia's historic lands. Many Western historians and global leaders described these narratives as false pretexts for aggression.

Russia's invasion of Ukraine accelerated fractures in the rules-based international order

This piece examines how the Ukraine conflict intensified underlying divisions in the global order—between Western democracies and the Global South, and between rule-of-law norms and great-power politics.

Ukraine once had the third-largest nuclear arsenal—and gave them all up by 1996

After the rapid collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine was left with over 1,700 nuclear warheads positioned throughout its territory. A massive global effort ensued, led by the United States, to return these and other nuclear weapons in former Soviet allied states to Russia.

Ukraine's contested Donbas region: a visual explainer

Russia's heavily industrialized eastern Donbas region has been largely controlled by Russian separatists since 2014. Here's everything you need to know on the key strategic region.

Ukraine has received over $300B in Western military and financial aid

Although not a member of NATO, Ukraine has received substantial support from Western nations, primarily the United States and the European Union, totaling more than $300B in military, financial, and humanitarian assistance.

Many countries remained neutral after Russia's invasion of Ukraine

Following Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine, few nations outside the West imposed sanctions on Moscow. Major powers such as China, India, Brazil, and Turkey remained neutral, underscoring global divisions over how to confront Russian aggression.

Hear how Putin's Soviet childhood shaped his rule

In this podcast, journalist Julia Ioffe traces Putin's worldview to his "dvor"—the rough Soviet courtyards where he learned power, loyalty, and survival. The series shows how these early lessons shape his war in Ukraine.

Soviet control spread across Eastern Europe after WWII

In the late 1940s, the USSR solidified control over Eastern Europe by installing pro-communist regimes in countries like Poland, Hungary and Romania—often through rigged elections and political repression.

The Partitions of Poland led to the erasure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Political instability and foreign interference weakened the Commonwealth, which was eventually divided between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Poland would not be re-established until after World War I and decades of imperial oppression.

Russia armed and backed separatists in Eastern Ukraine while denying involvement

Throughout the Donbas conflict, Russia covertly supplied weapons, training, and troops to separatist forces in eastern Ukraine, even as the Kremlin publicly denied direct involvement in the fighting.

Russia's invasion of Ukraine has destabilized safety and oversight at Chernobyl

Russian forces cut power and disabled monitoring of the decommissioned nuclear power plant in 2022, endangering operators at Chernobyl. In February 2025, a Russian drone struck the confinement structure—part of broader efforts to pressure Ukraine's energy infrastructure—punching a hole in the containment shell.

The first year of war in Ukraine, in photos

The Russian/Ukrainian war grows more real in this series of photographs from Associated Press News. Showing the effects of war on soldiers and civilians alike, the photographs turn an unflinching eye on the injuries and fatalities wrought by the conflict, now in its second year after Russia's invasion in 2022.

The Russia-Ukraine war greatly affected the global food supply

Russia's invasion devastated Ukraine's agricultural sector, destroying farms, ports, and grain infrastructure and causing over $40B in losses. Disrupted exports fueled global food insecurity, while Moscow leveraged its grain exports to expand influence across the Global South.

Stalin's policies intentionally caused a devastating famine in Ukraine

The Holodomor of 1932-33 was a human-made famine resulting from Stalin's grain requisition policies, killing an estimated 3 million to 4 million Ukrainians—considered by many to be an act of genocide.

Oil prices spiked when Russia invaded Ukraine in 2022

The price of a barrel of Brent crude experienced volatility in the early 2020s. This chart shows price spikes at the beginning of the pandemic and again when Russia invaded Ukraine.

What led to the October Revolution?

The 1917 Russian Revolution is actually two separate revolutions. One happened that spring that ended centuries of Tsarist rule and led to the establishment of a provisional government. Another happened that autumn during which the Bolshevik...

How organized crime took over post-Soviet Russia

After more than seven decades of Soviet communism, the collapse of the system in the early 1990s opened a path for organized crime to take over the country's newly-privatized industries. As Vladimir Putin centralized power in the subsequent decades, he did not vanquish the mafia, but rather tamed it. This long read explores the subtle, complex ways organized crime flourishes within Putin's state.

After it was banned from Eurovision, Russia resurrected its Cold War-era version

Russia was barred from the Eurovision Song Contest following its 2022 invasion of Ukraine. In 2025, President Vladimir Putin announced the revival of Intervision, a similarly structured song contest that the Soviet Union had organized throughout the Cold War.

A map of the Byzantine Empire

This map, hosted on the World History Encyclopedia, shows the Byzantine Empire in four eras. The area shaded dark purple is the original Eastern Roman Empire. The light purple areas represent the conquests of Justinian. The dark purple line surrounds the middle Byzantine Empire. The hatched area, finally, indicates the small “Latin Empire” established after the Fourth Crusade.

Ukraine's sushi restaurants have remained open through the country's war with Russia

Although the country's cities have become battlegrounds, its sushi restaurants—a popular comfort food for Ukrainians—have remained open. That's especially surprising considering they require imported fresh fish and highly skilled chefs.

Japan was an empire from 1868 until 1947

The Empire of Japan began on Jan. 3, 1868, and facilitated rapid modernization. It endured through a period of colonial expansion—including Korea and Taiwan—1930s militarism, and participation in WWII, until Japan’s formal transformation into a constitutional state under the 1947 constitution following Allied occupation.

British rule in India wasn’t deliberate—it developed from trade

This academic explainer shows how Britain’s rule in India evolved from unplanned trading footholds to complete imperial control. It examines the decline of the Mughal Empire, economic expansion, racism, rebellion, and the mixed legacy of institutions and exploitation that still shape India today.

See a timeline of the major moments in Soviet history

Beginning with Lenin’s return to Russia from Germany in 1917 and ending with Gorbachev’s resignation on December 25, 1991, this timeline outlines the significant domestic and foreign policy developments that led to the rise and fall of the Soviet Union.

What (and when) was Imperial China?

China's first dynasty arose in 1600 BCE, according to current archaeological evidence, and its last dynasty fell in 1911. Learn more about Imperial China in this Smithsonian collection of articles and artifacts on each dynasty. According to...

US–Soviet hostility began long before the Cold War

US–Soviet tensions began decades before WWII. After the 1917 revolution, the US refused to recognize the Bolshevik regime and even sent troops to fight against it.

Explaining the rich heritage of the ancient Greeks

Though only a unified empire for a decade under Alexander the Great, the ancient Greeks left lasting cultural influence throughout the modern world. Curious about ancient Greece? 1440's got your breakdown of the ancient civilization.

Defining the use of 'Third World' in geopolitics

The term "Third World" is mostly out of use today for its limiting connotations, but in light of a reordering of geopolitical alliances amid the Ukraine war, historians are reevaluating the term's usefulness. Read the history of the term starting from the 1950s, and learn what several experts claim about its contemporary efficacy.

A timeline of US immigration laws

The United States began regulating immigration soon after it won independence from Great Britain, and the laws since enacted have reflected the politics and migrant flows of the times. Here's a timeline of key immigration laws from 1790 to 2014, according to the Pew Research Center.

The British Royal Navy—not the US military—enforced the Monroe Doctrine for most of the 19th century

In the early to mid-1800s, the US lacked the ships and military power to prevent European nations from colonizing the Americas. Britain enforced this to protect its commercial interests by keeping rival European powers out of Latin America.

Medieval Europe explained

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Europe fragmented into agrarian Christian kingdoms that fostered the development of universities, guilds, and expanding commerce. Far from a “Dark Age,” the medieval era shaped Europe as a distinct cultural and political unit.

The Inca Empire: a timeline

When did the Inca Empire solidify into an empire? When was it invaded by the Spanish? What remains of it today? Click through this timeline to learn more.

World War I causes

World War I was, as the name says, truly war on the global scale. Fought between the French, Russian, British, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman, and Russian Empires, it was in part, a battle for territory. And after the war ended, several of these empires collapsed. Explore the different causes of World War II in this article.

Iran became a constitutional monarchy in 1906

A popular revolution forced the ruling Qajar Shah—a dynasty that had governed Iran since the late 18th century—to sign a constitution and establish a parliament, marking Iran's first major step toward democratic governance and limiting the monarchy's absolute power.

Dubbed 'stalkers,' some Ukrainian youth illegally explore Chernobyl's exclusion zone

A subculture of thrill-seekers, driven by a desire for rebellion and adventure, is representative of dark tourism in the region. Some stalkers sneak past militia posts to venture into abandoned ruins, risking radiation exposure while scavenging for ruins of the past.