Tariffs

Background

A tariff—a word derived from the Arabic arafa, meaning “to make known”—is a tax imposed by a government on goods that are imported or exported. Historically, tariffs have served as a primary source of revenue and a means to protect domestic industries, as they make foreign products more expensive, encouraging consumers to purchase locally produced goods.

The tools have a checkered history, famously bolstering US textiles, German steel, Japanese cars, South Korean technology, and more, while arguably contributing to major economic downturns like the Great Depression. Tariffs can be specific (a fixed fee per unit) or ad valorem (a percentage of the item's value).

Purpose

Economically, tariffs aim to protect domestic industries, generate government revenue, and influence trade policy.

By imposing taxes on imported goods—which raise the price of goods produced abroad—tariffs can shield local industries from foreign competition. In theory, this can allow early-stage domestic industries to grow and eventually compete globally.

Before the establishment of income taxes, tariffs were a primary source of income for governments. For example, tariffs accounted for a significant portion of US federal government revenue during the 19th century. Tariffs can also be used as leverage in trade negotiations, encouraging other nations to modify their trade practices.

Tariffs Throughout History

In ancient Rome and Greece, taxes were levied on imported goods, such as grain and textiles, to control trade.

Economic theory began to shift toward supporting free trade in the late 18th century, thanks to frameworks established by British economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Smith and Ricardo argued tariffs and protectionism stunted economic growth, suggesting countries should focus on producing and exporting goods they can produce more cheaply, while importing goods that other nations produce more efficiently.

The United States has utilized tariffs throughout its history to protect its domestic industries and promote industrialization (one of the first acts signed into law by Congress established tariffs).

During the Great Depression, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 was passed to revive domestic industry, raising taxes on roughly 25% of all imported goods. However, most historians and economists agree that the resulting trade war exacerbated the global economic crisis.

Tariffs in Modern Times

Following World War II, America facilitated the rebuilding of the global economy and prioritized removing barriers between nations to trade goods, a process called trade liberalization. This resulted in the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1947.

The GATT and its successor, the World Trade Organization, established structured frameworks for trade negotiation and dispute resolution between countries. The creation of these institutions resulted in significant increases in global trade and declines in the use of tariffs and trade restrictions.

In recent years, tariffs have reemerged as a significant tool of international trade policy. During President Donald Trump’s first administration, the United States imposed substantial tariffs, most notably on imports from China. This resulted in retaliatory measures by China, escalating into a trade war between the two nations that also prompted urgency for industry diversification and increased protection of US intellectual property.

Debates and Controversies

The use of tariffs is a contentious issue. Many economists argue that tariffs distort the efficiency of markets, leading to higher prices for consumers. Studies have shown that tariffs can result in declines in domestic output and productivity, as well as higher unemployment and inequality.

Despite the economic criticisms, tariffs often hold political appeal as they are perceived to protect local jobs and industries and assert national goals. This can lead to bipartisan support for tariff measures, even when evidence suggests they may harm the broader economy.